Stroke frequencies of emperor penguins diving under sea ice.

During diving, intermittent swim stroke patterns, ranging from burst/coast locomotion to prolonged gliding, represent potential energy conservation mechanisms that could extend the duration of aerobic metabolism and, hence, increase the aerobic dive limit (ADL, dive duration associated with onset of lactate accumulation). A 5.6 min ADL for emperor penguins had been previously determined with lactate measurements after dives of <50 m depth. In order to assess locomotory patterns during such dives, longitudinal acceleration was measured with an attached accelerometer in 44 dives of seven adult birds diving from an isolated dive hole in the sea ice of McMurdo Sound, Antarctica. Detection of wing strokes in processed accelerometer data was verified in selected birds with analysis of simultaneous Crittercam underwater video footage. Mean dive duration of birds equipped with the accelerometer and a time-depth recorder (TDR) was 5.7+/-2.2 min; 48% of these dives were greater than the measured 5.6 min ADL (ADL(M)). Highest stroke frequencies (0.92+/-0.31 Hz, N=981) occurred during the initial descent to 12 m depth. Swimming effort was reduced to a mean stroke frequency <0.70 Hz during other phases of the dive (while traveling below 12 m depth, during foraging ascents/descents to and from the sub-ice surface, and during final ascents to exit). The longest stroke interval (8.6 s) occurred during a feeding excursion to the undersurface of the ice. In dives >ADL(M), mean stroke frequency during travel segments was significantly less than that in dives 10 s) periods of prolonged gliding during these shallow (<60 m) foraging dives. However, a stroke/glide pattern was evident with more than 50% of strokes associated with a stroke interval >1.6 s, and with lower stroke frequency associated with increased dive duration.